Medical illustration is a growing interest of students from different educational backgrounds these days as the industry is growing at a good rate. What happens if you have some interest in medical illustration but are not sure you want it as your major?
In this article I will answer the question on the minds of many current and future university students, which is “Can you minor in medical illustration?”
The confocal microscope is an amazing and useful piece of equipment, allowing one to look into tissues with greater clarity and without the limitations of other microscopes. Not only can it be used to exactly pinpoint your stained objects of interest, but the 3D stacks it is capable of producing can be turned into virtual 3D worlds and animations you can fly through as if you were inside the living tissue.
However, even the most knowledgeable science professionals sometimes miss out on the essential details. You could own a piece of certain laboratory equipment and remain unsure of its full potential. In this article I will discuss the maximum magnification of a confocal microscope and related items.
Continue reading “Maximum Magnification of a Confocal Microscope? Factors Involved”
Many of us who work with graphics including 3D are familiar with graphics tablets. Companies like Apple, Microsoft, Samsung, Wacom, and Huion sell different types of tablets according to the needs of the users. Wacom’s graphics tablets are favored by many due to their ease of use and all the functions.
However, no product is perfect, and these devices can run into problems. Let’s explore all the things you can do when your tablet stops working.
If you are having problems with blurring in your microscopy images, going through deconvolution is highly likely to improve your results.
Deconvolution is not as difficult as it sounds, you just need to understand a few basic concepts and know which software can perform the task. This article will answer such questions.
As a general rule, to perform deconvolution you use a calculated theoretical or extracted point spread function from your microscope, which you then apply in a deconvolution plugin to your image or image stack. The result which may take several iterations is a deconvolved image with less blur and more accurate object dimensions for data analysis.
But let’s start at the beginning by getting familiar with the terms and then describe the steps.
Just to be on the same page if anyone is new to the term deconvolution, here are the basics needed to perform the process. Deconvolution is a computationally intensive process of clearing up a microscopy image which has undergone convolution or distortion due to the objective’s limited aperture. It makes the image appear closer to the actual real life subject being viewed. Deconvolution can involve increasing resolution, contrast, and deblurring.
Deconvolution can be used on images from various types of microscopes, including confocal, multi photon and light sheet. In addition, it can improve the quality of images which were affected by motion during capture. Deconvolution is performed on an entire Z series of images.
While it is said that the pinhole and nature of the confocal microscope eliminates the need for deconvolution later on by getting rid of the signal from other focal planes, this is often not the case. True deconvolution uses algorithms on existing images and can likely help with the quality of confocal photos. In confocal, deconvolution helps with elongation of spherical objects in the Z axis.
Deconvolution is important whenever image analysis will be involved (and in science that is most of the time). If not performed, the results of image analysis may contain a systematic error.
The Point Spread Function is a function or shape of your optical system which describes the convolution. It does so by describing the path light from a point source of light takes through the microscope. It has a different shape depending on the type of imaging used. The point spread function is much wider for air lenses and that is why they have lower resolution unlike oil immersion lenses.
If the point spread function can be measured, the image can be corrected. During convolution, the point spread function is applied to every point in the sample which as a result gives the final, altered image. Anotherwords the image you observe is a product of the point spread function times the real object. Deconvolution reverses this.
To perform deconvolution you need to generate the point spread function for your specific system. There are different ways to do this, discussed later.
Here is an online calculator if you are interested in calculating a PSF (not needed for the process of deconvolution itself).
Deconvolution can be performed on single images or 3D stacks (file with multiple images at different depths). 3D deconvolution is more computationally intensive. However, as with many procedures that take more time, the results are often more accurate. 3D deconvolution works through iterations with better quality images resulting from each subsequent cycle. Blur is treated on every layer available.
In terms of what you need for 2D vs 3D deconvolution, for a 3D stack you have to enter the Z spacing of your stack as well as the number of images in stack.
When you are acquiring your 3D stack, be sure to go beyond your object of interest so that deconvolution results are the best possible. This is because you want to cover the PSF of not only the subject of interest but also other points in the slide.
To perform deconvolution you need one of the following:
There are several programs and plugins out there specifically made for deconvolution which will make the process much easier. Some work with ImageJ, others with Matlab, and still others are stand alone Java programs. In certain cases, a single program can run on all of these. You can experiment with which ones work best for you.
Mentioned earlier, PSF Generator is a Java program that can be used to generate a point spread function. It has more than a dozen models and can work with ImageJ as a plugin.
Diffraction PSF 3D creates a theoretical z stack of the theoretical point spread function. All you need to do is enter data into various windows based on the raw image, including specs such as slice spacing, image pixel spacing, width, height, wavelength used, numerical aperture and index of refraction of your media.
Parallel Spectral Deconvolution is an ImageJ plugin for deconvolution which takes advantage of higher spec hardware and multi core processors.
DeconvolutionLab is nicely laid out open source GUI plugin with various deconvolution algorithms including Naive Inverse Filter, Tikhnonov Inverse Filter, and Richardson-Lucy. It can be linked to ImageJ or Matlab and runs as a stand-alone.
The Iterative Deconvolve 3D plugin is an ImageJ plugin for both 2D and 3D deconvolution. It is iterative and has a built in Wiener filter as a preliminary step. The plugin uses a point spread function image Z stack. It is an iterative plugin which works much better for noisy microscopy images.
Deconvolution may be performed using ImageJ and associated plugins adequately depending on the condition of the source material and other factors. It is best to try it and see if it meets your expectations.
“File:Blind deconvolution illustration.png” by Huo Zhuoxi is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Keep in mind that some plugins for deconvolution only work on grayscale images. If you are using one of these plugins, you need to go in ImageJ to Image/Type/8 bit to convert your image to grayscale. If you have a color image, you just have to split the color image into a layer for each color channel and then put it back together after the deconvolution is done.
This is easier than it sounds. With color image open, go to Image/Color/Split Channels, save the resulting images with names to remember which was which color, deconvolve them separately as described below, then go to Image/Color/Merge Channels.
-Open your image dataset
-Go to plugins/3D/Diffraction PSF 3D
-Enter your microscope and specimen values to create PSF
-Go to plugins/Parallel Spectral Deconvolution and choose 3D or 2D
-Choose source image and created PSF file
-Select options such as algorithm (experiment with it) and click Deconvolve
-Compare deconvolved slice with original one
-Repeat deconvolution with different settings if necessary
-Open your stack of point like objects/beads
-Go to plugins/PSF Generator and run it
-Save PSF
-Open your image dataset
-Go to plugins/Parallel Spectral Deconvolution and choose 3D or 2D
-Choose source image and created PSF file
-Select options such as algorithm (experiment with it) and click Deconvolve
-Compare deconvolved slice with original one
-Repeat deconvolution with different settings if necessary
It is that simple. In addition to experimenting with the various algorithms, you can try different plugins and free vs commercial software packages if you are not happy with the results. So basically you can substitute plugins in the steps where plugins are mentioned to see what works best for you.
Deconvolution can be very hardware intensive. The deconvolution process takes several iterations. You may need a high spec workstation and GPUs for certain stacks and deconvolution procedures. It also matters which software you are using. A GUI heavy program with easy to navigate graphics may not be your optimal solution, keep that in mind.
Below is a useful video on deconvolution from the Howard Hughes Institute which gives a more detailed explanation:
I hope this article made deconvolution easier to understand and took away any fear of the process.
Click the following link to learn how to improve MRI quality.
Currently, thousands of people are waiting on the transplant list for organs like kidneys, heart, and liver. Unfortunately, there are not nearly enough donor organs available to fill that demand. You also cannot donate an organ such as a heart while the patient is alive. What if instead of waiting, we could create a brand new customized organ? That is the idea behind bioprinting.
This technology is still in development but there are already printers out there capable of performing the impossible a few years ago. The consensus is that rather than printing cells layer by layer as in regular 3D printing, 3D printing of organs should be done by printing scaffolds on which cells can grow and develop into a full size organ.
As you can imagine with such an undertaking on the cutting edge combining 3d printing technology, medicine and biology, this is not something that comes at a low price. Let’s discuss the costs of printing organs.
The cost of 3D printing organs is changing as technology evolves. Living tissue has been successfully printed with a $1000 3D printer while more specialized bioprinters cost upwards of $100,000. Other costs involved include bioinks which start at hundreds of dollars, associated research and the cost of highly skilled operators for 10 weeks or more per organ. It is not uncommon for the initial cost of bringing a bioprinting technology onto the market to be in the tens of millions of dollars.
According to the National Foundation for Transplants, a standard kidney transplant can cost up to 300,000 dollars. But compared to that if a kidney is printed through a printer and if they are suitable for use in the human body then the cost will be much less. Companies such as Bioscience, Volumetric, FluidForm, Printivo are working on 3D-printed organ services.
It is not all easy going, and companies pioneering in this space have to face huge start up costs in the millions of dollars to bring their technology to market. Operating losses can be very high. Funds are usually obtained from grants and private investors. Another limitation is getting through all the usual red tape and testing tissue first in animals and finally in humans years later if approved.
The world of 3-dimensional bioprinting or 3D organ printing is very complex. Polymers such as Hydroxyapatite, Titanium, Chitosan, and collagen are used that need to be biocompatible and capable of having cells attach to their scaffold and grow into an organ.
A bioink, which can be thought of as printer ink for bioprinting, is a a hydrogel material combined with cells. Using bio-inks provides high reproducibility and precise control over the fabricated constructs in an automated manner.
Bioinks are able to support the growth of various cell types. They come as a ready-to-use gel for printing 3D tissue models. They are versatile and biodegradable. BioInk is usable for long-term tissue cultivation such as many weeks.
Calcium Phosphate material for 3D tissue printing is called as OsteoInk. OsteoInk is a ready-to-use calcium phosphate paste for structural engineering. OsteoInk is a highly osteoconductive biomaterial close to the chemical composition of human bone. It is used to make various types of hard tissues in the human body such as bones, cartilage, or structural scaffolds.
OsteoInk can be combined with BioInk to create complex 3D tissue mimetic models. It controls the uniqueness of the bioprinter by enabling freeform fabrication of the tissue model, creating tissue layers, pore formation, and biological structure. BioInk is often used with OsteoInk to reduce opacity.
In addition to BioInk and OsteoInk, special ingredients like Agarose, Collagen, Alginate, Polyethylene, Glycol, and Gelatin are used for 3D Bio-printing.
Transplantation of 3d printed organs could be a revolution in medical science. However, many issues stand in the way. Researchers are working hard to create a directly replaceable organ. Many companies are working day after day to make it possible. They are constantly facing many problems while doing this research. As with organ transplants in the human body and rejection, the recipient often faces some problems. What are those unresolved obstacles? Let’s see what problems scientists have to go through in this work.
Collecting the biomaterials that are used to support and structure the cells that make up a functional printed organ is a difficult task for scientists.
As mentioned earlier, Synthetic polymers and Hydrogel are used for 3D organ printing. Synthetic polymers are mechanically strong and suitable for printing but may lack cell adhesive properties to support cell growth. Meanwhile, natural polymers are not as strong as synthetic polymer polymers but are much more suitable for cell attachment, expansion, and differentiation.
Scientists have recently printed a heart using a 3D bioprinter. The main ingredient in the artificial heart was Alginate, and it was taken from a type of algae that lives in the deep sea. They chose nano cellulose and alginate because these plant-based materials naturally support the power of plant micro-architectures to aid cell growth.
The key to printing three-dimensional functional organs is to maintain the structural integrity of the organ. The shape of the artificial organ often depends on the viscosity of the BioInk used in the printer.
Biodegradable scaffolds made from biomaterials have often been used to maintain the shape of bioprinted tissues and seed cells, but scaffolding defects include stimulating immune responses, as well as cell detachment from potential toxicity and decay by-products.
Printers have become one of the major problems for bio-printing. Some minor flaws in the use of printed organs in the human body can become a major problem. Often, the entire printing is ruined due to a printer hardware error. An error in organ printing occurs when the printer is interrupted for some other reason.
Below is a good TED Talk video on how bioprinting works:
Bioprinting can be done with inkjet based and extrusion based methods, as well as SLA, FDM and SLS.
BioInk is used as the main printing material for 3D organ printers. A bioprinter uses polymeric materials and cellular hydrogels, such as syringes or professional extrusion paste. But plastics are used as the printing material of ordinary printers. So a bioprinter should never be compared to a normal printer. Currently, many companies are working on making and improving bioprinters.
Bioprinters are available at different price points and qualities on the market. The bioprinter made by ‘EnvisionTEC’ is the latest type of a bioprinter. This printer converts computer-aided tissue engineering 3D models and patient CT data into a physical 3D scaffold. This printer is called ‘ 3D Bioplotter’.
The ‘NovoGen MMX’ made by Organovo is a much better quality bioprinter. They have created this for their own use only. This bioprinter is only used to make beneficial tissues. Organovo does not sell its ‘NovoGen MMX’ technology.
“Organovo BioPrinter” by NIH-NCATS is marked with CC PDM 1.0
RegenHU’s ‘3DDiscovery’ bioprinter is one of the most expensive printers. The printer uses two printing methods and utilizes various hydrogels, bioactives, cells, and extracellular matrix materials. It is capable of enabling dynamic protein networks as well as cell/cell interactions.
These are very advanced printers. Also, there are some less expensive printers available in the market. Typically, these start at 10,000 dollars. But, buying a good quality printer can cost up to 200,000 dollars. One of the less expensive printers, ‘Alpha & Omega’ is a 3D printer made by ‘3Dynamic Systems’. It works on syringe-based extrusion technology.
Developers are still working on some sophisticated and open-source models of 3D printers, which have not yet hit the market. However, the hope is that when they come on the market, 3D bioprinters can be used at a very low cost and open to all.
Here is a price guide for some of the more expensive bioprinters.
3D printing technology is very important in the field of medical science. 3D-printed organs have been used in many large and complex surgeries as reference. From the human brain to the smallest bones of the body, 3D printing has been used. 3D printed anatomical models are important for medical improvement. Surgeons can take less time in surgery by planning and practicing an operation on a custom 3d printed copy of a patient’s organ.
I hope that this article has given you some idea about what is involved in 3D printing of organs, including the costs. Click the following link to learn how to 3D print wax.
Unless you are a trained medical professional, you may have trouble understanding the difference between medical imaging and radiology. It’s sometimes hard to differentiate between two similar ideas or practices within the medical field, and people often get these terms confused.
In this article I will describe each term in depth and explain how they differ.
While radiology and medical imaging are certainly very closely related, they are not the same thing. Radiology is the science of X-rays and other high-energy radiation technologies for the diagnosis and treatment of different conditions and diseases. Medical imaging technologies, on the other hand, are visual representations of the inside of the body.
Radiology, however, is not limited to just one area of practice. Below, I will highlight several different specialties and subspecialties that utilize different medical imaging techniques for various purposes.
While medical imaging and radiology are very closely related and often are confused with each other, they are not the same thing. Radiology is a specific field of medicine, while medical imaging is a technology used by radiologists. Medical imaging may be used by radiologists to monitor, diagnose, or treat various conditions within the body in a non-invasive way. Different types of radiologists specialize in and utilize different medical imaging technologies, depending on what field of medicine they’re in and what kind of patients they treat.
These technologies are used so physicians can view the inside of the body without needing to perform any exploratory surgeries. According to the FDA, this is crucial in allowing the radiologist and other doctors on a patient’s care team to learn and monitor information related to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases or injuries. It also allows physicians to check how the body is responding to previously administered medical treatment.
The term “medical imaging” refers to a branch of technologies that allow a radiologist to diagnose, treat, or monitor diseases or injuries inside the body. It can also be used to keep track of the body’s response to a previously administered or ongoing medical treatment.
According to NPS MedicineWise, medical imaging includes technologies such as:
Each of these technologies is best suited to different purposes, depending on the patient’s condition and what part of the body the radiologist needs to view.
There are many different types of medical imaging technologies that radiologists use. Here is what you can expect with each one:
X-rays are typically used to provide images of the bones inside your body. They use ionizing radiation and are most often used to tell if you have a bone break or sprain. They can also detect arthritis, osteoporosis, infections, cancer, or digestive problems.
X-rays are relatively quick and simple, taking just a few seconds to complete. Usually, an x-ray will be done while you are either standing or sitting, but you might be required to lay down in some instances.
CT scans take a series of X-rays to create images of the cross-sections within the body. Like x-rays, they use ionizing radiation and can detect broken and fractured bones, infections, and cancers. According to the University of Virginia, CT scans can:
While x-rays are typically done while you’re sitting or standing, and are only done while laying down in certain circumstances, a CT scan requires you to lay on a table that slides into a tube, rotating around you while it takes x-rays of your whole body.
Like x-rays, CT scans are fairly quick procedures. They take about 15 minutes to complete, though this can vary based on your condition.
Like CT scans, you’ll be required to lay on a table that slides into a scanner during an MRI, though MRI machines are usually more narrow and deeper than CT scanners. MRI machines use magnetic waves, and you may hear tapping or banging while the MRI is used.
These scans produce detailed images of organs and tissues. According to UVA, MRIs can detect and diagnose serious conditions and problems including:
Most people are familiar with ultrasounds in terms of monitoring a pregnancy and checking an unborn baby’s development. However, ultrasounds also have a number of important diagnostics uses. The University of Virginia claims ultrasounds can guide biopsies and diagnose things like:
As the name suggests, ultrasounds use sound wave technology to view different organs within the body.
When you get an ultrasound, the technician will first apply a gel to your skin to reduce the amount of air between your skin and the ultrasound probe. This is done because the ultrasound waves may be affected while traveling through the air, skewing the image they provide. The technician will then move the probe around the area until they find the area they need to see.
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans are one of the more complicated medical imaging technologies. They use radioactive drugs called “radiotracers” to show organ and tissue function throughout the body.
Before you undergo a PET scan, you’ll need a dose of radiotracers. The radiologist will either give you a radiotracer pill to swallow or an intravenous injection of the substance prior to the scan, and this will allow the scanner to read the radiation given off by it.
PET scans can be used to diagnose a variety of serious conditions, including:
The machine used to administer a PET scan is similar to those used for CT scans and MRIs.
Single-photon emission computerized tomography scans, or SPECT scans, are a type of nuclear imaging scan similar to PET scans. They produce images that show how well your organs work together, like how well your blood flows throughout your body or what areas of your brain are the most active.
According to the Mayo Clinic, SPECT scans can monitor and diagnose:
Before the SPECT scan begins, you will be given an intravenous dose of a radiotracer similar to that administered during a PET scan.
Once your body has absorbed the substance, you will be scanned in a machine similar to an MRI machine. The length of time it takes can vary depending on your condition, but it’s typically a longer process than most other medical imaging procedures (Mayo Clinic).
Radiology is a branch of medicine that uses radiation technology, including medical imaging, to diagnose, treat, and monitor diseases and injuries. In some cases, radiology is also known as roentgenology.
Physicians who practice radiology are known as radiologists. They may specialize in one of three areas:
Within the broader area of radiology as a whole, there are three distinct areas in which radiologists will practice, according to the American Board of Radiology. These areas include:
As the name suggests, diagnostic radiology is mainly concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Diagnostic radiologists use all of the medical imaging technologies listed above in their work.
There are many subspecialties that diagnostic radiologists may work within. Some of these include neuroradiology, pain medicine, and pediatric radiology.
Interventional radiologists perform imaging, image-guided procedures and can diagnose or treat conditions within:
They may utilize therapies such as embolization, angioplasty, drainage, and stent placement in their work.
Interventional radiologists may subspecialize in a variety of subjects, including nuclear medicine and pediatric radiology.
Radiologists who practice radiation oncology use radiation technologies, including ionizing radiation, CT scans, MRIs, and ultrasounds to treat cancer.
People who receive radiation therapy for cancer treatment will typically be working with a radiation oncologist. They may also use hyperthermia, or heat treatment, in their work. Some subspecialties of radiation oncology include hospice and palliative medicine, and pain medicine.
Subspecialties are specialized areas within the three main branches of radiology. Diagnostic radiologists, interventional radiologists, and radiation oncologists all have different fields in which they may subspecialize. There are also a number of intersectional subspecialties that include radiologists from all three backgrounds.
These are the subspecialties in which a radiologist might have expertise in:
Radiologists in all three fields are able to subspecialize in hospice and palliative medicine. These radiologists help to prevent and ease the suffering of patients who have been diagnosed with life-limiting illnesses, such as late-stage cancer. They work to optimize a patient’s quality of life and may also offer support for families.
Neuroradiology is a subspecialty often practiced by diagnostic and interventional radiologists. Neuroradiologists work within the neurological system, which includes the brain, sinuses, spine and spinal cord, neck, and central nervous system.
Neuroradiology can help treat:
Radiologists in this field commonly use medical imaging techniques such as angiography and MRIs (American Board of Radiology).
Nuclear radiologists typically work within the diagnostic and interventional radiology fields. These physicians use small amounts of radioactive substances, including radiotracers, to create images and get information to render a diagnosis. They typically use PET, and SPECT scans to do so (American Board of Radiology).
Nuclear radiology can be very helpful in treating thyroid conditions, including hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer. It is also often used to treat other kinds of cancer, including lymphoma, and can help with the pain brought on by cancer (CDC).
Diagnostic radiologists, interventional radiologists, and radiation oncologists may all have a subspecialty in pain medicine. These physicians provide pain relief care for all patients, including those with acute, chronic, or even cancer pain, in both in-patient and out-patient environments. They also work closely with other types of doctors to properly coordinate a patient’s ideal pain relief regimen.
Pediatric radiologists in the diagnostic and interventional radiology fields diagnose and monitor congenital disorders, and those present mainly in children and infants. They also work with children who have conditions that can cause more problems later in life.
An important part of a pediatric radiologist’s job is making sure all imaging techniques, including x-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and nuclear medicine, are administered properly and safely enough to treat young children.
Diagnostic radiologists have the option to subspecialize in vascular and interventional radiology. These physicians use a variety of medical imaging techniques to diagnose and treat disease, including:
Vascular and interventional radiology is used to treat conditions like cardiovascular disease, cancers, and even varicose veins therapies used by these subspecialists include:
Experts agree that medical imaging is one of the most widely beneficial and useful medical developments in recent history. The New England Journal of Medicine has even ranked medical imaging as one of the top medical developments of the past 1,000 years!
Below, you’ll find a list of some of the top benefits offered by medical imaging technology:
Medical imaging by radiologists has made it possible for doctors to detect diseases much earlier on in their progression. This is especially useful for asymptomatic conditions, or those that show no outward symptoms. When doctors are able to catch a harmful disease earlier, there’s more that can be done for the patient treatment-wise.
Most health issues are much easier and less expensive to treat in the earlier stages, while those caught late tend to require expensive, intense treatment or invasive surgeries.
One example of how early detection with medical imaging has saved countless lives is digital mammograms. Digital mammograms are used to detect breast cancer and can catch signs of it an average of two years before a tumor would even begin to form. This gives those affected less invasive and a greater number of options for their next step.
Medical imaging procedures can render a faster and more accurate diagnosis, because the radiologist can actually see what’s causing a problem. It’s also far safer than having the patient undergo an unnecessary exploratory surgery and can help doctors better determine when surgery is actually needed.
Most medical imaging requires little to no special preparation. With CT scans, you may be asked not to eat anything less than four hours prior to the scan, and PET and SPECT scans will require you to either take a small dose of radiotracers orally or intravenously.
Barring special circumstances, these are the only preparative measures that need to be taken prior to a medical imaging procedure.
Medical imaging can also help radiologists, and other types of physicians better monitor the progress of known conditions and how well these conditions are responding to ongoing or previous treatment.
Diagnostic imaging is painless and non-invasive, so patients who suffer from conditions that need to be monitored will be subjected to less invasive procedures, including exploratory surgeries. This can, in turn, reduce the length of time a patient spends in the hospital for their condition.
Imaging technologies can show if and how a condition is progressing, how it’s responding or not responding to treatment, and the severity of any internal injuries, like bone fractures.
The terms medical animation, biovisualization and medical illustration are sometimes confused with medical imaging. Medical animation is the process or product of creating a 3D educational film about a physiological process or other medical topic, which often includes models built from scratch. Biovisualization is the process of representing biological data visually and may include processing medical imaging data. Medical illustration is the process or product of creating any illustration including 2D and 3D visuals of biological and medical topics and may encompass medical animation.
Each of these may be based on or include data and images acquired through medical imaging technologies.
Becoming a radiologist will require medical degree, along with the proper licenses and certifications for your state. According to CME Science, you’ll need a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) to become a radiologist.
After graduating with from medical school, many prospective radiologists, or radiology technicians as they’re sometimes called, choose to do a radiology residency at a hospital. This may or may not be required, depending on your state, but could be helpful in making connections and building your resume!
After all your training is complete, you’ll need to pass a state exam to become a licensed radiologist. This exam varies by state and may require you to complete a certification program with the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists.
Even if your state does not require this certification for licensing, it may be beneficial to do so anyway to increase job prospects.
Below is a useful introduction to medical imaging from the University of Buffalo:
While the terms medical imaging and radiology tend to be used interchangeably, they are far from the same thing. Radiology refers to the use of radiation technologies to diagnose and treat diseases and injuries, while medical imaging is a subset of these radiation technologies used by radiologists.
Radiologists may specialize in many different areas, but all radiologists use medical imaging to one degree or another.
Click on the following link to learn how to improve the quality of MRI images.
